Background
Most readers will be familiar with the Psychology of Personal Constructs.
However, some will welcome a short introduction to the theoretical background
of the papers compiled in this book. This can be short since there are several
introductory books available in some of the major European languages. In
English language, they are, among others, Bannister and Fransella (1986),
Burr and Butt (1992), and Landfield and Epting (1987), in Italian Mancini
and Semerari (1985), and in German Scheer and Catina (1993).
Even in the United States, Personal Construct Psychology cannot
be considered a part of mainstream psychology. One of the reasons is that
Kelly developed his theory in sharp contrast to the reigning schools of psychological
thought of his time, behavioural theory and psychoanalysis. And to transport
his new ideas, he chose to use a language and invented or re-defined terms
not commonly used this way in academic psychology. Yet it is still a delightful
experience to read especially the first three chapters of his main work (Kelly,
1955) (they happen to be the only writings of his that have been translated
to German) where he elaborates the properties of a good theory and shows
how personal construct theory could serve as a major superordinate theory
for many psychological phenomena.
Another point is concerned with the content of the theory.
From the point of view of a "nomothetic", would-be experimental behavioural
psychology, Kelly´s approach is provocatively subjectivist. Psychodynamically
oriented psychologists may (erroneously) consider his theory being too cognitivist
and lacking a thoroughly developmental perspective.
However, after the "cognitive turn" of late in psychology,
Kelly´s theory seems to be more "modern" than ever. On the other hand,
with the relativistic ideas of constructivism, especially the "radical" version
having become more popular, Kelly´s stance on empirical evidence (validation
in his terms) has become increasingly attractive to researchers and practitioners
who feel the need of empirical validation of their own concepts.
Personal Construct Theory
Anticipation
The limitation of space does not permit more than a very short overview of
the basic concepts of the theory. Perhaps the most important idea is that
of anticipation. Just as a scientist aims at a better control of reality
by predicting events, every individual tries to predict the course of events
in his/her life and to control their outcome. Everyone of us has his/her
explicit or implicit theories about the world around us (including the persons
important to us), develops hypotheses and checks them against "reality",
in an almost experimental, in any case empirical way. Therefore "man as
scientist" is the central metaphor of Kellyan theory. We anticipate events
and experiences, we "construe" our reality, and find our constructions eventually
validated or invalidated and subsequently keep to them or modify them.
The "fundamental postulate" of Personal Construct Theory therefore
is:
A person´s processes are psychologically channelized
by the ways in which he anticipates events.
In a number of "corollaries", Kelly specifies these ideas,
especially with respect to the properties of constructs and construct systems.
Constructs
Constructs are not just theoretical concepts as opposed to observable variables,
like in standard psychology. Superficially, a construct is a verbal label,
but this label represents a conceptual distinction that an individual makes.
We are used to think in terms of contrasts (the dichotomy corollary):
the concept of "big" does not exist without an idea of "small".
It is important to note that constructs are not only names,
or concepts, or attitudes, or opinions. Constructs have a function for the
individual. They serve as tools to replicate events in our imagination, and
to make up our view of the world by continuous confirmation or disconfirmation,
thus "to construe reality" (the construction corollary). Constructs
are organised in systems, often hierarchical in structure, there are superordinate
constructs, core constructs, peripheral constructs, according to their importance
to the individual´s life (the organisation corollary). We have
different construct systems for different areas and realms which may even
be partially incompatible or at least contradictory when involved at the
same time (the fragmentation corollary). Constructs in principle can
be changed through experience (the experience corollary). A person
decides for him/herself which alternative of a construct pertains to him/her,
assigns him/herself to a construct pole, "chooses" the construct pole, if
he/she can expect an extension or definition of his/her construct systems.
Doing this he/she "construes him/herself" (the choice corollary). Constructs
are significant characteristics of the individual (the individuality corollary),
i. e. "personal". But the ways of construing of an individual are to some
extent similar to those of another (the commonality corollary), and
even if they are different - we have to be able to understand the other´s
constructions ("construe the other´s constructions") (thesociality
corollary) in order to be able to live in a society, to maintain
interpersonal relationships. Every construct has a limited applicability
(its range of convenience) and also an area where it fits best (the focus
of convenience) (the range corollary). This also limits a construct´s
ability to change (the individual´s capability of learning and re-orientation);
the ability of a construct to include new events into its range of applicability
may vary (the modulation corollary). Core constructs are central to
the invidual´s personality, they enable him/her to maintain his/her
identity. They are superordinated to others, and have a wider range of convenience.
If they are challenged and required to change, this is experienced as utterly
stressful.
The focus of theoretical and practical interest of Personal
Construct Psychology is the analysis of the construct systems which an individual
uses to analyse, understand, structure, change his/her environment. One might
say that in a Piagetian sense, the use of constructs encompasses assimilation
as well as accommodation processes. And, as Kelly points out, in constructs
emotions and cognitions are inseparably linked, and it does not make much
sense to separate them and even assign them different kingdoms in the world
of psychology.
Repertory Grid Technique
Kelly´s theory would probably be less known and less influential, had
he not invented an ingenious method of exploring constructs and construct
systems: the Repertory Grid Technique. This is a kind of test that the "subject"
develops him/herself, guided by the psychologist. In a procedure described
below the person first defines the area that the test is to be applied to
(the "elements"), then develops the items ("constructs"), then completes
the grid that is made up by the two dimensions elements and constructs. In
Kelly´s original version (The Role Repertory Test), the famous "significant
others" constituted the elements. He had the subjects assign real persons
to the "role titles" supplied (such as father or favourite teacher). Then
several selections of three elements each were compared ("please tell
me, is there an important way in which two of these three (you self,
your father, and Auntie Nora) are alike and thereby different from the
third?"), resulting in a list of bi-polar constructs. Finally the person
had to decide which construct pole applied to every person (element) listed.
A matrix (or grid) with "ticks" and "blanks" resulted that was considered
a representation of the construct system pertaining to the set of elements
involved. Nowadays, often a graded rating (e. g. on a 6-point scale) is used
to assess the elements with respect to the constructs.
It can be seen that the information obtained is highly individual,
therefore the technique had been termed "idiographic". However, the procedure
is more or less standardised, which is an important feature of a procedure
used in "nomothetical" psychology. And, however personal the constructs are,
certain properties of the construct systems can be distinguished and
compared to those seen in other persons - irrespective of the content
of the constructs.
Variations
The procedure described above is still the standard procedure of taking a
"repgrid" today. However a huge variety of topics have been explored in the
research on construct systems - after all, we have construct systems for
most every field of life (and death). In fact, in repgrid research elements
as diverse as personal others, death situations, and British seaside resorts
have been used. And the techniques of construct elicitation and of element
assessments have been varied, too.
The main, almost revolutionary development however has been
the application of mathematical analysis (principal component analysis and
cluster analysis) to repgrid data using personal computers.
It may be seen from this, that Repertory Grid Technique as
a data collection method lends itself to a vast variety of applications.
And it can also be used by researchers and practitioners who do not share
the theoretical positions of Personal Construct Theory. Many of them are
more interested in the interrelationship of the elements used - e. g. self-parent
relationship, expressed in quasi-Euclidian distances, as representing "object
relationships" in a psychoanalytical sense.
Other methods of exploring constructs
It has been argued that taking a repertory grid is comparable to a semi-standardised
interview, with the procedure being standardised, not the content. So it does
not come as a surprise that other methods of exploring constructs have been
developed. Among these are the "laddering" and "pyramiding" procedures which
require the subject to successively explore the implications the constructs
in question (and their poles) have for the person. Thus hierarchical relationships
can be analysed better this way than through a repertory grid. A related
technique is the ABC model which asks for the disadvantages and advantages
of the opposite poles of a given construct for the person.
Controversies
Like other theories, Personal Construct Theory has a "life", a kind of development
in stages which has been described by R. Neimeyer (1985). The popularity
of the Repertory Grid Technique has attracted persons with other theoretical
observances. Some Personal Construct psychologists think that the time is
right to reconsider theoretical orientations in view of the developments
in other disciplines like cognitive psychology. The fact that the theory
can be placed beside others, and has been so with the idea of approximation,
linkage, even amalgamating in mind, has been of concern to some of the leading
theoreticians in Personal Construct Theory. On the other hand, e. g. the
Australasian Personal Construct Network (which encompasses the Australian
and New Zealand groups) considers it appropriate to convene under the motto
"Breaking the orthodoxies in PCP" in 1996 - quite funny in view of Kelly´s
insisting on the limited "range of convenience" of the theory itself and
his conviction that at some time in the future the theory might become invalidated
by the course of time. However, he probably did not have 40 years in his
mind as the due time for such events to happen.
References
Bannister, D., Fransella, F. (1986). Inquiring Man (3rd edition). London:
Routledge.
Burr, V., Butt, T. (1992). Invitation to Personal Construct
Psychology. London: Whurr.
Kelly, G.A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs.
Vols. 1 and 2. New York: Norton (2nd printing: 1991, London: Routledge).
Landfield, A., Epting, F. (1987). Personal construct psychology:
clinical and personality assessment. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Mancini, F., Semerari, A. (1985). La psicologia dei costrutti
personali: saggi sulla teoria di G. A. Kelly. Milano: Franco Angeli Libri.
Neimeyer, R. A. (1985). The development of Personal Construct
Psychology. Lincoln, Nebraska: The University of Nebraska Press.
Scheer, J.W., Catina, A. (eds.) (1993). Einführung in
die Repertory Grid-Technik, Vol. 1 & 2. Bern: Huber.
Scheer, J.W., Catina, A. (eds.). 1996. Empirical Constructivism
in Europe - The Personal Construct Approach. Giessen: Psychosozial Verlag.
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